LAB
4: SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION AND INFECTION
Introduction
While contamination of dietary supplements
is extremely rare, it is helpful to be aware of possible causes so that
outbreaks are prevented.
Contamination
can occur anywhere in the production cycle. Pesticide residues and heavy metal
pollutants can be introduced to botanicals by growers, or they can seep in from
a neighbor's field or the groundwater. Soil can be contaminated from previous
uses. Bacteria, which have filled every conceivable ecological niche, can
infiltrate crops.
Minerals
can be contaminated by the chemical processes used to extract them from rocks
and ores. Raw materials might be stored in places that previously held
chemicals or other undesirable substances. The manufacturing process itself
could expose a product to whatever herbs or other materials were previously run
through a particular machine.
Manufacturers
establish and follow procedures for ensuring that contaminants do not enter the
plant in the form of raw materials and are not introduced during processing.
Practices such as testing of materials, regular cleaning of machinery, and
tracking of materials by lot number are used to ensure purity. Standardized
good manufacturing practices (GMPs) also include guidelines for ensuring
cleanliness.
Objective
To
determine the microorganisms in the air and from healthy humans
Result
 |
| Microorganisms in ear |
 |
| Microorganisms
in mouth (cough) |
 |
| Microorganisms in air |
 |
| microorganisms
in hand |
 |
| Microorganisms
in normal breath
Discussion
Airborne droplet nuclei generated during
coughing or sneezing are a potential source of transmission of infection either
by direct inhalation or indirectly through contaminated medical devices.
Droplets generated from infected respiratory tracts can remain airborne for
long periods of time and transmit infections like tuberculosis, respiratory
viral illnesses and antibiotic-resistant hospital bacteria. Airborne
contamination is mainly derived from the personnel in the operation theatre and
their activities. The bacterial count in operation theatre is influenced by the
number of individuals present, ventilation and air flow. Exogenous infections
of surgical wounds are caused predominantly by Staphylococcus aureus and S.
epidermidis is an important pathogen in implant surgery. S. aureus and S.
epidermidis are shed into the environment in skin scales of which 106 are shed
by an individual each day. Healthy carriers shed few staphylococci.
Ear wax is composed mostly of dead skin
cells and keratin with a small mixture of cerumen, sweat, and oil. Cerumen is
secreted from the ceruminous glands located in the first third outer part of
the ear canal and is thought to be composed mainly of cholesterol, squalene,
wax esters, ceramides, and triglycerides. The cerumen also has antimicrobial
properties which can be attributed to its slight acidic pH of 5 and the
presence of lysozyme. In normal circumstances, the ear wax is continuously
pushed out of the ear canal by the slow migration of the top layer of skin
cells from the tympanic membrane towards the outer ear. The ear wax traps any
foreign particles and organisms on its way out.
Current research on ear wax shows that
some of the antimicrobial properties of the cerumen can be attributed to the
presence of antimicrobial peptides, Human Beta-defensin 1 and Human
Beta-defensin 2. Other recent studies have shown that cerumen directly inhibits
the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida
albicans, but its effect on the growth of E. coli remains to be determined. Ear
infections are often associated with dysfunction or swelling of the Eustachian
tubes. The Eustachian tube is the principal portal for the entry and exit of
bacterial in the middle ear. During a viral upper respiratory tract infection
(i.e. the common cold), inflammation can block the Eustachian tube. As a result
the middle ear does not drain properly and the fluid builds up, becoming a
breeding ground for bacteria. Additionally, children have larger adenoid glands
than adults.
Frequent coughing usually indicates the
presence of a disease. Many viruses and bacteria benefit evolutionarily by
causing the host to cough, which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most
of the time, coughing is caused by a respiratory tract infection but can be
triggered by choking, smoking, air pollution, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux
disease, post-nasal drip, chronic bronchitis, lung tumors, heart failure and
medications such as ACE inhibitors. A cough can be the result of a respiratory
tract infection such as the common cold, pneumonia, pertussis, or tuberculosis.
Infections in the breathing tubes can be caused by both bacteria and viruses,
although the most common cause in children is a virus.
A normal breathing rate is approximately
12 to 20 respirations per minute while at rest. This means that the person will
breathe in and out 12 to 20 times during a 60 second period. When counting,
make sure to count a breath in and out as one breath to avoid doubling the
respiratory number. It is helpful to count a breathing rate when the person is
relaxed and is unaware that you are watching her breathing pattern because most
people will begin to focus on breathing and disrupt the natural flow if they
know that someone is counting the breaths per minute. Normal breathing is
typically quiet without wheezes, coughing, bubbling sounds, or other noises.
Breath odor is the scent of the air you breathe out of your mouth. Unpleasant,
distinctive, or offensive breath odor is commonly called bad breath. Some disorders
will produce specific, characteristic odors to the breath. Bad breath related
to poor oral hygiene is most common and caused by release of sulphur compounds
by bacteria in the mouth.
Conclusion
Contamination is the presence of a minor
and unwanted constituent (contaminant) in material, physical body, natural
environment. Poor biological air quality may be connected with some
non-biological aspects. As we know, there are many microorganism that are
colonized in the free air and also in human body. The exposed of the molten
agar to the air and healthy humans cause contamination.
Reference
http://www.biotecharticles.com/Others-Article/Benefits-of-Microorganisms-to-Humans-133.html
http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/research/groups/jdeacon/microbes/airborne.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection
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